Hidden Microplastics and Diabetes Risk, 2026 Report

Plastic was once celebrated as a miracle material. Lightweight, inexpensive, and exceptionally durable, it revolutionized industries, reshaped consumer habits, and transformed everyday life, from packaging and textiles to electronics and construction. Its convenience and longevity made it indispensable. Yet the very properties that made plastic so useful have also created a persistent, global problem. Microscopic fragments now infiltrate nearly every corner of the natural world, drifting through oceans, soils, freshwater systems, and the air we breathe. Increasingly, scientists are finding that these particles are also entering the human body, raising urgent questions about long-term health impacts.

These tiny fragments, known as microplastics, are nearly invisible but omnipresent. They have been detected in food, drinking water, and even in human blood and tissues. Microplastics can carry a complex mixture of chemicals, including endocrine-disrupting additives and environmental pollutants. As of 2026, the detection of these particles in reproductive tissues and arterial plaques has intensified the scientific consensus on their biological activity. Research over the past decade has begun to explore how these particles interact with human biology, sparking concern among public health experts about potential links to metabolic conditions. One particularly urgent question is whether exposure to microplastics could influence the development of diabetes, a disease affecting millions worldwide.

While microplastics do not act alone, they may represent a subtle but significant environmental factor in metabolic health. Laboratory and observational studies suggest they can trigger inflammation, alter gut microbiota, and carry chemicals that disrupt hormonal balance, all processes intimately connected to insulin regulation and glucose metabolism. The possibility that these pervasive particles could be a hidden contributor to metabolic disorders has turned microplastics into a pressing topic in global health research.

This report provides a detailed look at what science currently knows about microplastics and diabetes, outlines the mechanisms by which these particles may influence human metabolism, and highlights the areas where evidence remains limited. It also examines the broader implications for public health policy, industry practices, and everyday lifestyle choices, emphasizing why understanding microplastics is not just an environmental concern but a critical element of modern health stewardship.

What Are Microplastics

Microplastics are tiny plastic fragments smaller than five millimeters, often far smaller than a grain of rice. These particles are increasingly recognized as a pervasive environmental contaminant with potential implications for human health. They originate from multiple sources and can enter ecosystems in complex ways, making their study critical in understanding microplastics and diabetes.

Sources of Microplastics

Microplastics are generally classified into two categories: primary microplastics and secondary microplastics.

• Primary microplastics are intentionally manufactured for industrial purposes, such as microbeads in cosmetics, abrasive agents, and certain synthetic fibers.
• Secondary microplastics form when larger plastic items, including packaging, bottles, and fishing nets, break down over time due to sunlight, heat, and mechanical stress.

Both types can accumulate in the environment, spreading through oceans, rivers, soil, and even the air.

Chemical Composition and Additives

Microplastics vary widely in their chemical composition, depending on the type of plastic and the manufacturing process. Common polymers detected in the environment include:

• Polyethylene (PE) – used in packaging films and containers.
• Polypropylene (PP) – found in bottles, caps, and food containers.
• Polyester (PET) – commonly used in textiles and clothing fibers.
• Polystyrene (PS) – present in disposable cups, cutlery, and packaging materials.

Plastics often contain chemical additives such as stabilizers, flame retardants, plasticizers, and colorants. These additives are not inert; they can leach out and interact with biological systems. The combination of the plastic matrix and additives makes microplastics complex chemical carriers, with the potential to influence human metabolism and health.

Environmental Persistence and Human Exposure

Microplastics are exceptionally persistent, resisting natural degradation for decades or longer. Their small size allows them to spread widely:

• In aquatic systems, they are ingested by fish and shellfish, entering the human food chain.
• In the air, synthetic fibers from clothing and textiles can be inhaled.
• In soil and freshwater, plastic fragments interact with other pollutants, potentially absorbing toxic metals or chemicals, which can then be transferred to humans.

Emerging research has shown that microplastics are not confined to external exposure. They have been detected in human blood, placental tissue, and reproductive fluids, highlighting their ability to reach critical biological systems. These findings have heightened concerns about the role of microplastics in metabolic health, including their potential contribution to diabetes.

How Microplastics Enter the Human Body

Microplastics, due to their minuscule size and widespread presence, are now entering the human body in ways that were unimaginable just decades ago. These particles are so small that they can travel unnoticed through air, food, and water, creating continuous exposure that scientists are only beginning to understand. Researchers are increasingly concerned about how this exposure might affect human metabolism and the potential connection to microplastics and diabetes.

Food as a Pathway

One of the most common routes for microplastics to enter the body is through food. Particles can cling to seafood, grains, fruits, vegetables, and other commonly consumed items. Plastic packaging, cooking utensils, and storage containers can also release tiny fragments into food, especially when heated. Over time, this constant ingestion may contribute to the accumulation of microplastics in the digestive system, prompting researchers to investigate their long-term effects on insulin regulation and glucose metabolism.

Inhalation of Airborne Particles

Airborne microplastics are another significant route of exposure. Fibers from clothing, carpets, and other synthetic materials can become suspended in the air, particularly indoors. When inhaled, some of these particles can travel through the respiratory system, while others are swallowed and pass into the digestive tract. The presence of microplastics in indoor environments demonstrates how difficult it is to avoid contact with these pervasive particles.

Water and Environmental Contact

Microplastics also enter the body through water and general environmental exposure. They are found in both bottled and tap water, often originating from pipes, treatment systems, or environmental runoff. Dust and mist in the surrounding environment may carry additional microplastic particles, which can be ingested or inhaled unintentionally. This highlights how microplastics have become an inescapable part of modern life, entering the body in multiple ways.

Distribution Inside the Body

Once inside the body, microplastics may travel beyond the digestive system. Their small size allows some particles to cross intestinal barriers, reaching the bloodstream and other organs, including the liver, lungs, and reproductive system. Recent studies show microplastics can even be detected in blood and reproductive fluids, indicating they can reach critical biological systems. This systemic presence raises important questions about their potential role in microplastics and diabetes, especially regarding inflammation, hormonal disruption, and changes to metabolic processes.

Where Microplastics Have Been Detected

Microplastics are no longer just an environmental concern; recent research demonstrates that these tiny particles have entered the human body in multiple ways. Their small size and chemical properties allow them to accumulate in tissues and fluids, sometimes in locations previously thought to be protected. This systemic presence highlights their potential impact on human health, including metabolic disorders such as microplastics and diabetes.

Circulatory System

Microplastics have been detected in human blood, indicating that these particles can move beyond the digestive tract and circulate throughout the body. This finding suggests that even microscopic particles can cross intestinal barriers and access vital organs, carrying with them the chemical additives or pollutants that adhere to their surfaces.

Reproductive Tissues

Studies show that microplastics can also infiltrate reproductive tissues. They have been found in placental tissue, revealing that particles can reach developing fetal environments. Additionally, research has documented microplastics in male reproductive fluids and testicular tissue. These discoveries demonstrate that microplastics can cross biological barriers, potentially affecting reproductive health and hormonal regulation.

Other Organ Systems

Microplastics are not limited to blood and reproductive tissues. Evidence indicates they may accumulate in organs such as the liver, kidneys, and lungs. Their presence in these tissues raises questions about long-term interactions with cellular systems, chronic inflammation, and metabolic regulation. Scientists are particularly focused on understanding whether this systemic accumulation contributes to conditions such as insulin resistance, highlighting the emerging link between microplastics and diabetes.

Why Scientists Are Studying Diabetes Links

Diabetes is rapidly becoming one of the most widespread chronic diseases worldwide. While genetics, diet, and lifestyle are established drivers, recent research increasingly highlights environmental exposures as potential contributors to metabolic dysfunction. Among these exposures, microplastics have emerged as a subject of growing scientific interest.

The Role of Microplastics in Hormonal Disruption

Microplastics are not merely inert particles; they can carry chemical additives or accumulate environmental pollutants that interfere with hormonal signaling. Certain compounds present on these particles have been shown to mimic or disrupt pathways involved in insulin regulation. Data from 2026 indicate that microplastics may influence endocrine systems in ways that could subtly affect blood sugar control, pointing to a potential link between microplastics and diabetes.

Laboratory Insights and Gut Microbiome Effects

Controlled animal studies demonstrate that ingestion of microplastics can modify gut microbiota composition and trigger low-level systemic inflammation. Both mechanisms are closely connected to glucose metabolism and overall metabolic balance. These findings provide a scientific framework for understanding how long-term exposure to environmental particles could contribute to metabolic risk, without implying that microplastics act as a singular causal factor.

Microplastics Within a Complex Risk Landscape

Current evidence suggests that microplastics alone are unlikely to directly cause diabetes. Rather, they may act as one component among multiple environmental and lifestyle stressors that influence disease development. Observations from 2026 reinforce the view that microplastics fit within a multifactorial risk profile, highlighting the importance of continued research into their role and the potential for environmental management strategies to complement traditional preventive measures for metabolic health.

What Recent Studies Are Showing

Laboratory Evidence of Metabolic Effects

Research indicates that microplastic particles may subtly affect metabolic systems in the body. Animal studies have shown that prolonged exposure can trigger mild systemic inflammation, alter the balance of gut microbial communities, and increase oxidative stress. Each of these responses is closely connected to blood sugar regulation and insulin function. Data from 2026 suggest that even very small plastic fragments can interact with multiple biological pathways at once, raising important questions about the link between microplastics and diabetes.

Human Observations and Population Insights

Research indicates that findings from human studies are beginning to align with laboratory results. Microplastic particles have been detected in the bloodstream, placental tissue, and other bodily fluids, demonstrating that they can cross natural biological barriers and accumulate over time. Population-level studies have also found associations between environmental plastic exposure and measures of impaired insulin function or metabolic stress. Although these correlations do not yet prove causation, they suggest that everyday exposure to microplastics may play a meaningful role in metabolic health.

Research Limitations and Future Needs

Research indicates that this field still faces significant challenges. Many studies involve small sample sizes, short observation periods, or indirect measures of exposure. Laboratory experiments provide insight into potential mechanisms, but these findings cannot yet fully predict human health outcomes. Long-term, large-scale studies are necessary to clarify the conditions under which microplastics may contribute to metabolic disorders. Emerging evidence from 2026 highlights the urgent need for comprehensive investigations to determine the role of microplastics and diabetes in human health.

Public Health Considerations

Research indicates that microplastics are likely one factor among many interacting influences on diabetes risk. Public health strategies that address environmental exposures alongside genetics, lifestyle, and diet could help reduce long-term metabolic challenges. Even modest reductions in plastic pollution may have meaningful benefits for human health. Coordinated approaches combining individual actions with policy-level interventions are essential to minimize exposure and support metabolic stability over time.

Correlation Versus Causation

Separating Association from Cause

Research indicates that finding microplastics in human tissues does not necessarily mean these particles directly trigger disease. People who encounter plastic pollution are often simultaneously exposed to other environmental and lifestyle pressures, such as air pollution, dietary patterns, or socioeconomic challenges, which themselves can affect diabetes risk. Understanding this distinction is crucial to avoid overstating conclusions.

Current Evidence and Its Boundaries

Studies to date show that microplastics can influence biological processes, including low-level inflammation, oxidative stress, and shifts in gut microbial communities. These mechanisms are known to play a role in metabolic regulation. However, no study has yet proven a direct causal link between microplastic exposure and diabetes in humans. Evidence from 2026 suggests that microplastics may act as one of multiple contributing factors rather than being a singular cause, emphasizing the need for careful scientific interpretation.

Clear and Responsible Communication

Effective science communication requires balancing awareness of potential risks with accuracy. It is important to report findings without generating undue alarm while highlighting the areas that require further research. Large-scale, long-term investigations are needed to determine how microplastic exposure interacts with diet, genetics, and other environmental influences to impact metabolic health. Accurate, responsible reporting is key for guiding public health policies, shaping preventive strategies, and advancing research into microplastics and diabetes.

Possible Biological Mechanisms

Research indicates that microplastics may influence metabolic function through several interconnected biological pathways. Even small plastic fragments, once inside the body, have the potential to initiate subtle physiological disruptions that could contribute to diabetes.

Chronic Inflammation

Persistent, low-level inflammation appears to be a key mechanism. Microplastic particles accumulating in tissues may trigger immune responses that gradually reduce insulin sensitivity and disturb normal blood sugar regulation. Data from 2026 show that even minimal, ongoing exposures could sustain this inflammatory state over time, creating conditions that may predispose individuals to metabolic dysfunction.

Endocrine Interference

Chemical additives in plastics can interfere with hormone signaling. Certain compounds may impact how the body regulates fat storage, manages blood glucose levels, and maintains pancreatic function. These endocrine-disrupting effects provide a plausible pathway by which microplastic exposure could influence metabolic regulation and contribute to diabetes risk.

Gut Microbiome Alterations

Shifts in gut microbial populations represent another possible mechanism. Evidence suggests that microplastics can alter the balance of beneficial and harmful bacteria, affecting nutrient absorption, energy metabolism, and overall metabolic health. Early research links such microbial changes with obesity and diabetes, indicating that the gut microbiome may be a sensitive interface through which environmental particles impact human physiology.

Microplastics as Pollutant Carriers

Microplastics can act as carriers for a mix of chemical pollutants, exposing the body to multiple compounds simultaneously rather than isolated substances. This combined exposure may amplify biological effects and interact with other environmental or lifestyle factors. Considering microplastics as multifactorial stressors rather than inert debris is essential for understanding their potential role in metabolic disorders, particularly regarding microplastics and diabetes.

Global Health and Policy Responses

The growing body of evidence on microplastics is beginning to influence global health priorities. Policymakers and international organizations increasingly recognize that these particles represent not only an environmental issue but may also have long-term implications for metabolic health, including microplastics and diabetes.

Regulatory Actions and Research Initiatives

Several countries have introduced bans on microbeads in personal care products and are tightening regulations on plastic production and waste management. Environmental agencies are funding studies to map exposure pathways and evaluate potential health effects. From a 2026 perspective, international negotiations continue to develop treaties aimed at reducing plastic pollution on a global scale. These policy measures highlight the emerging consensus that controlling plastic exposure is essential for both environmental sustainability and human health.

Public Health Framing

Public health organizations increasingly view microplastics as a complex, multidimensional challenge intersecting with nutrition, urban living, industrial design, and consumer habits. Evidence suggests that reducing environmental plastic exposure could complement traditional strategies for preventing metabolic disorders, emphasizing the need for integrated approaches to population health.

Industry Responses

Industry initiatives are exploring biodegradable polymers, eco-friendly alternatives, and improved recycling technologies. At the same time, systemic reductions in plastic use remain a central focus, as technological solutions alone are unlikely to fully address the problem. Coordinating regulatory oversight, public education, and sustainable industry practices is widely considered the most effective strategy for mitigating both the health and environmental impacts of microplastics

Ethical and Legal Dimensions of Microplastics Research

As research on microplastics and diabetes advances, ethical and legal considerations are becoming increasingly important. Scientists, policymakers, and industry stakeholders must address issues of consent, data transparency, environmental justice, and regulatory compliance. Addressing these dimensions ensures that studies generate reliable insights while respecting human rights, societal expectations, and global environmental responsibilities.

Ethical Considerations in Microplastics Studies

Ethical concerns in research on microplastics and diabetes include obtaining informed consent for human studies and the responsible use of animal models. Researchers must balance the need for comprehensive data with the welfare of participants and the integrity of ecosystems. Transparency in reporting, including clearly stating limitations and uncertainties, is essential to maintaining public trust and avoiding misinterpretation of potential health risks associated with microplastics and diabetes.

Legal and Regulatory Challenges

Legal frameworks for microplastics and diabetes research vary across regions. Compliance with environmental laws, laboratory safety standards, and regulations governing human or animal experimentation is mandatory. Additional challenges arise with intellectual property, data sharing, and international collaboration. Following these guidelines is critical to ensure research is conducted responsibly and findings are disseminated without legal complications.

Environmental Justice and Societal Impact

Microplastics pollution can disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, raising ethical and societal concerns in the context of microplastics and diabetes research. Equitable approaches are needed to ensure that exposure risks and policy solutions do not exacerbate social inequalities. Engaging communities in research design and communication helps align scientific studies with public health priorities and societal expectations, ensuring that efforts to study microplastics and diabetes benefit all populations fairly.

What Individuals Can Do Today

Even small, intentional steps can help reduce personal exposure to microplastics. While research continues to clarify the long-term health effects, including potential impacts on microplastics and diabetes, individuals can take practical actions to limit contact with these particles and support metabolic health.

Practical Steps for Everyday Life

Using glass or stainless-steel containers for food storage instead of plastic can minimize direct contact with packaging chemicals, particularly when heating meals. Choosing clothing made from natural fibers can reduce the release of indoor microfibers. Improving ventilation in living spaces and employing high-quality water filtration systems can also lower daily ingestion and inhalation of microplastic particles. Evidence from 2026 indicates that these modest interventions, while not eliminating exposure, represent meaningful ways to reduce environmental contact on a daily basis.

Integrating Individual Actions with Broader Strategies

Personal measures are not a substitute for systemic solutions but complement policy and industry initiatives aimed at reducing plastic pollution. Awareness and deliberate choices by individuals can reinforce wider efforts to address the complex relationship between environmental plastics and metabolic health, emphasizing that effective prevention requires both individual and collective responsibility.

The Technological Gap and Future Monitoring

Understanding the Challenge

Although awareness of microplastics and their potential health impacts, including links to microplastics and diabetes, has grown, accurately measuring human exposure remains a major scientific hurdle. While the risks are increasingly recognized, the tools available to detect and quantify these particles in human tissues and environmental samples are still developing. This disparity between awareness and technological capability introduces uncertainty into both research findings and public health policy.

Current Analytical Limitations

Techniques such as mass spectrometry and advanced imaging can identify microplastics in blood, placental tissue, and other biological samples. These methods, however, are often labor-intensive, costly, and limited in scale. The very small size of the particles, their chemical diversity, and the complexity of environmental and biological matrices complicate precise detection and quantification. Research indicates that these technological constraints remain a major barrier to fully understanding human exposure and its potential metabolic consequences.

Future Directions

Investing in more sensitive, standardized, and high-throughput monitoring methods is essential for the next phase of research. Longitudinal studies tracking exposure over months or years, combined with enhanced data sharing and interdisciplinary collaboration, can help bridge the current knowledge gap. Evidence from 2026 highlights that addressing these technological challenges is not simply a matter of convenience. It is vital for producing reliable data that can inform public health strategies and regulatory decisions.

The Bigger Picture

The challenges of monitoring microplastics underscore a broader lesson. Understanding their health effects requires more than awareness. It requires innovation, precision, and sustained commitment. By overcoming these technological hurdles, researchers can better clarify the relationship between environmental plastics and metabolic health, ensuring that findings on microplastics and diabetes are both accurate and actionable.

Beyond Human Observation: What AI Sees in the Data

Harnessing Artificial Intelligence in Microplastics Research

Artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming how scientists study microplastics and their potential health effects, including connections to diabetes. Traditional laboratory and observational methods often struggle to process large datasets, detect subtle patterns, or link environmental exposures to complex biological outcomes. AI algorithms, including machine learning and deep learning techniques, can analyze millions of data points simultaneously, revealing associations that might remain invisible to conventional analysis.

Identifying Hidden Patterns and Correlations

Using AI, researchers can examine relationships between microplastic exposure, metabolic biomarkers, and disease progression in ways that account for multiple confounding factors, such as diet, lifestyle, and socioeconomic variables. Evidence from 2026 demonstrates that AI models can detect subtle correlations between environmental plastic contamination and early signs of metabolic dysregulation, providing an unprecedented layer of insight into how microplastics may influence human health.

Predictive Modeling for Public Health

AI is also enabling predictive modeling to forecast potential long-term outcomes of microplastic exposure. By integrating environmental monitoring data, clinical metrics, and population health trends, these models help researchers estimate which populations may be most at risk and identify early intervention strategies. This capability complements traditional experimental research by offering a scalable, data-driven perspective on environmental health risks.

The Limits and Responsibilities of AI Analysis

While AI provides powerful tools, it cannot replace careful scientific validation. Patterns identified by algorithms require verification through laboratory studies, clinical research, and epidemiological analysis. Researchers emphasize that AI should serve as a complement, not a substitute, for rigorous investigation. Nonetheless, the insights AI offers into microplastics and diabetes underscore the importance of integrating technological innovation into modern environmental health research.

The Road Ahead for Research

It is remarkable to recognize how microplastics have become a pervasive presence in the environment and how much remains unknown about their effects on human health, including potential links to microplastics and diabetes. Decades of widespread plastic production have effectively created a global-scale experiment, and researchers are only beginning to observe the subtle ways these particles interact with biological systems.

Future research will require long-term and comprehensive approaches. Scientists need to accurately classify and quantify different types of microplastic particles, track exposure over extended periods, and link these exposures to measurable biological effects. Collaboration across multiple disciplines, including toxicology, epidemiology, clinical medicine, and environmental science, will be essential for producing reliable and actionable findings.

Diabetes results from a complex interplay of genetics, lifestyle, diet, and environmental factors. Evidence suggests that ongoing exposure to microplastics may contribute additional stress to metabolic systems. Understanding this relationship is critical not only for scientific inquiry but also for developing effective public health strategies, guiding policy decisions, and informing sustainable management of synthetic materials.

The challenges ahead are substantial. Investigating the intricate interactions between microplastics and human metabolism requires rigorous methods, patience, and interdisciplinary cooperation. Data emerging in 2026 indicate that environmental pollutants influence metabolic health in nuanced, multi-layered ways, highlighting the importance of careful, transparent, and sustained research.

FAQ – Microplastics and Diabetes 2026

Understanding the potential impact of microplastics on human metabolism can be complex. These frequently asked questions provide context, clarity, and insight based on current research.

Q: What are microplastics?
A: Microplastics are tiny plastic fragments smaller than five millimeters. They can come from consumer products, packaging, clothing fibers, or the breakdown of larger plastic items. These particles are now found in water, food, air, and even human tissues.

Q: How do microplastics enter the human body?
A: Microplastics can be ingested through food and water, inhaled from the air, or absorbed through environmental contact. Some particles can cross intestinal barriers and reach organs, including the liver, kidneys, reproductive tissues, and bloodstream.

Q: Can microplastics cause diabetes?
A: Current evidence does not indicate that microplastics directly cause diabetes. Studies suggest they may act as one of several environmental factors that, together with genetics, diet, and lifestyle, influence metabolic regulation and insulin function.

Q: What biological mechanisms are involved?
A: Research shows that microplastics may contribute to low-level inflammation, endocrine disruption, changes in the gut microbiome, and transport of chemical pollutants. These mechanisms can subtly affect glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity.

Q: Are there ways to reduce personal exposure?
A: Yes. Using glass or stainless-steel containers instead of plastic, choosing clothing made from natural fibers, improving indoor ventilation, and using high-quality water filtration can help reduce daily contact with microplastics.

Q: What is being done at a policy level?
A: Governments and international organizations are introducing restrictions on microbeads, strengthening plastic waste management, and funding research to track exposure pathways. Industry is also exploring biodegradable alternatives and improved recycling technologies.

Q: What is the outlook for research?
A: Long-term, large-scale studies are needed to fully understand the relationship between microplastics and metabolic health. Collaboration across toxicology, epidemiology, clinical medicine, and environmental science is essential to produce actionable findings.

Editorial Disclaimer

This content is part of the Hidden Microplastics and Diabetes Risk, 2026 Report and is intended for informational and educational purposes. It summarizes current research and emerging evidence on microplastics and their potential influence on human metabolism, including possible links to diabetes. While this report draws on peer-reviewed studies, population data, and expert analyses from 2026, the field is rapidly evolving, and new findings may change the current understanding. This content does not constitute medical advice or treatment recommendations. Discussions of risk factors, correlations, or biological mechanisms should not be interpreted as establishing direct causation. The editorial team has aimed for accuracy, neutrality, and clarity, highlighting both what is known and areas requiring further investigation.

References

• Microplastics in Human Placenta and Health Impacts: A significant study highlighting the presence of microplastic particles in human placental tissue and the potential long-term health implications for fetal development via Nature Scientific Reports.
• Detection of Microplastics in Groundwater Systems: Peer-reviewed research focused on the pathways through which nanoplastics and microplastics infiltrate tap water and groundwater reserves via Springer Nature.
• Toxicological Effects on Human Health: A comprehensive analysis published in PubMed regarding the cellular and systemic toxicity caused by chronic exposure to ingested microplastics via PubMed.
• Environmental Distribution of Nanoplastics: Scientific investigation into the degradation of larger plastic debris into nanoplastics and their subsequent entry into the food chain via SpringerOpen.
• Microplastic Ingestion via Bottled Water: Academic research detailing the significantly higher levels of microplastic particles found in bottled water compared to municipal tap water sources via PubMed.
• Advanced Identification Techniques: Recent developments in spectroscopic methods for more accurate detection and quantification of sub-micron plastic particles in biological samples via Springer.